Definitions of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

Definitions of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) The term English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English language as a common means of communication  (or contact language) for speakers of different native languages.Although most contemporary  linguists  regard English as a lingua franca (ELF) as a valuable means of international communication and a worthwhile object of study, some have challenged the idea that ELF is a distinct variety of English. Prescriptivists  (generally non-linguists) tend to dismiss ELF as  a kind of foreigner talk  or what has been disparagingly called BSEbad simple English.British linguist Jennifer Jenkins points out that ELF is not a new phenomenon. English, she says, has served as a lingua franca in the past, and continues to do so nowadays, in many of the countries that were colonized by the British from the late sixteenth century on (often known collectively as the Outer Circle following Kachru 1985), such as India and Singapore. . . . What is new a bout ELF, however, is the extent of its reach (English as a Lingua Franca in the International University, 2013).    Examples and Observations As well as being usedoften in a very simple formby tourists, ELF is prominent in international politics and diplomacy, international law, business, the media, and in tertiary education and scientific researchwhich Yamuna Kachru and Larry Smith (2008: 3) call ELFs mathetic functionso it is clearly not a reduced lingua franca in the terms original (Frankish) sense. Yet it usually differs from English as a native language (ENL), the language used by NESs [native English speakers]. Spoken ELF contains a huge amount of linguistic variation and non-standard forms (although formal written ELF tends to resemble ENL to a much greater extent).(Ian Mackenzie,  English as a Lingua Franca: Theorizing and Teaching English. Routledge, 2014)ELF in Local and International SettingsEnglish operates as a lingua franca at a number of different levels, including local, national, regional and international. Apparently paradoxically, the more localised the use of English as a lingua franca, the more varia tion it is likely to display. This can be explained by reference . . . to the identitycommunication continuum. When used in a local setting, ELF will display identity markers. Thus code-switching and the explicit [use] of nativised norms can be expected. When used for international communication, on the other hand, speakers will consciously avoid the use of local and nativised norms and expressions.(Andy Kirkpatrick,  World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and English Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 2007) Is ELF a Variety of English?Whether ELF should be called a variety of English at all is an open question, and one which cannot be answered as long as we do not have any good descriptions of it. It is well known that divisions between languages are arbitrary, and therefore those between varieties of a language have to be as well. Once descriptions are available of how speakers from different linguacultural backgrounds use ELF, this will make it possible to consider whether it would make sense to think of English as it is spoken by its non-native speakers as falling into different varieties, just as is the English spoken by its native speakers. . . . It is likely that ELF, like any other natural language, will turn out to vary, and to change over time. It does not make much sense, therefore, to talk about a monolithic variety as such: a variety can be treated as if it were a monolith, but this is a convenient fiction, for the process of variation itself never stops.(Barbara Seidlhofer, English as a Lingua Franca in the Expanding Circle: What It Isnt.  English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, ed. by  Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni.  Continuum, 2006) Two ApproachesSeeing as the movement to bring forth the conceptualization of English as a lingua franca is gaining momentum worldwide, and more specifically for Europe, it is imperative that an analysis is made of the implications of the two differing approaches . . .. One is the (traditional) idea that English is a lingua franca for a non-native speaker constituency which should pursue knowledge of the language as if it were a foreign language. The other, upheld by those who have bought into the world Englishes paradigm, is to see English as a lingua franca for interlocutors who use it with others in multicultural settings (and thus see English in its diversity as opposed to viewing English as a prescriptive entity defined by idealized inner-circle speakers). It should be made clear, moreover, that my own position here is that a lingua franca must be inclusive as opposed to exclusive. That is to say, it is imperative that our understanding of how English is used in Europe is integra ted with a vision of a communicatively viable use of the language internationally.(Marko Modiano, EIL, Native-Speakerism and the Failure of European ELT.  English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical Issues, ed. by  Farzad Sharifian. Multilingual Matters, 2009)

Low Maintenance Alternatives to Grass

Low Maintenance Alternatives to Grass Grass lawns first appeared in Europe in medieval times, status symbols for the rich that had to be kept trimmed by fairly labor-intensive methods, often by grazing livestock and certainly not by polluting lawn mowers and poisonous weed killers. Lawns actually did not become popular in North America until the middle of the 20th century, but are now as common as the middle-class suburban homes they surround. It Takes Water and Money to Keep Grass Lawns Green Besides hogging public water supplies- over 50 percent of U.S. residential water usage goes to irrigate lawns- a 2002 Harris Survey found that American households spend $1,200 per year on residential lawn care. Indeed, the booming lawn care industry is more than eager to convince us that our grass can be greener- and then sell us all the synthetic fertilizers, toxic pesticides, and leaky lawnmowers to make it so. Groundcover Plants and Clover Require Less Maintenance than Grass Lawns There are many alternatives to a carpet of monochromatic grass for one’s property. A variety of groundcover plants and clover can be used instead, as they spread out and grow horizontally and require no cutting. Some varieties of groundcover are Alyssum, Bishops Weed, and Juniper. Common clovers include Yellow Blossom, Red Clover, and Dutch White, the best suited of the three for lawn use. Groundcover plants and clovers naturally fight weeds, act as mulch and add beneficial nitrogen to the soil. Flowers, Shrubs and Ornamental Grasses Consider using flower and shrub beds, which can be â€Å"strategically located to add color and interest while expanding the low maintenance areas of your yard,† and planting ornamental grasses. Ornamental grasses, many which flower, have numerous benefits over conventional grasses, including low maintenance, little need for fertilizer, minimal pest, and disease problems and resistance to drought. However tempting, though, try to avoid planting invasive plants. Anyway, native plants often require less water and general maintenance. Moss Plants are Another Alternative to Grass Lawns According to David Beaulieu, moss plants should also be considered, especially if your yard is shady: â€Å"Because they are low-growing and can form dense mats, moss plants can be considered an alternative ground cover for landscaping and planted as ‘shade gardens’ in lieu of traditional lawns.† Moss plants do not possess true roots, he points out, instead deriving their nutrients and moisture from the air. As such they like wet surroundings and also soil with a pH that is acidic. The Benefits of Grass Lawns In all fairness, lawns do have a few plusses. They make great recreational spaces, prevent soil erosion, filter contaminants from rainwater and absorb many kinds of airborne pollutants. So you might still keep a short section of lawn, one that can be mowed with a few easy strokes. If you do, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends avoiding traditional synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. The Best Ways to Care for Grass Lawns A number of all-natural alternatives are now widely available at nurseries. Natural lawn care advocates also advise mowing high and often so that grass can out-compete any nascent weeds. Leaving clippings where they land, so they can serve as natural mulch, helps prevent weeds from getting a foothold.